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Mechanism of Action Redox Reactions & Energy Production NAD alternates between its oxidized (NAD) and reduced (NADH) forms to shuttle electrons during metabolic pathways such as glycolysis, -oxidation, and the citric acid cycle

So, even though vitamin B12 is water-soluble (meaning your body typically excretes excess through urine), extremely high levels may occasionally lead to side effects, including: Headaches or dizziness Digestive issues, such as diarrhea Skin reactions like itching or rashes Allergic reactions (rare but very serious) To avoid this, it's important to consult with a healthcare professional to determine the correct vitamin B12 dosage for your needs

doi: 10.1016/j.amjhyper.2006.08.009

10.1039/C6FO01168C 9

PMID 12095224

In this research, it was also demonstrated that JA treatments increase the phosphorylation levels of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK1/2), suggesting that the MAP kinase signaling pathway is involved in the modulation of the antioxidant defense by JA (Shan et al., 2011)